Commercialization, Globalization, and the Media Explosion 

Michael Butterworth, in Sport and Militarism: Contemporary Global Perspectives, discusses how American sports, especially football, became closely linked to expressions of nationalism and militarism during the Cold War and after 9/11¹. Butterworth shows how pregame ceremonies, military flyovers, and “Support the Troops” campaigns turned sporting events into patriotic rituals. This politicization of sports helped justify increased defense spending and normalized military culture in daily American life. This period also experienced significant changes in media technology. The growth of television, cable networks like ESPN, and later digital streaming platforms turned sports into a 24/7 business. David J. Leonard, in After Artest: The NBA and the Assault on Blackness⁵, examines how media coverage of athletes, particularly Black athletes, shaped public views. His analysis of the media’s treatment of basketball player Ron Artest, later known as Metta World Peace, reveals how Black masculinity was often portrayed as dangerous, emotional, or irresponsible. Leonard argues that even as African American athletes gained wealth and fame, their actions were viewed through racialized lenses. His study highlights that while commercialization brought in money and visibility, it did not eliminate racial inequalities in representation. The global reach of sports also grew during this time. The NBA, in particular, became an international brand. Players like Michael Jordan and later LeBron James emerged as global icons. Leonard shows how Jordan's image was carefully crafted to appear “race-neutral” to appeal to multinational corporations. This commercialization of identity reflects a broader trend where sports stars became not just athletes but also brands. At the same time, the passage of Title IX in 1972 changed opportunities for women in sports. Historian Susan K. Cahn, in Coming on Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women’s Sport, explains how Title IX opened doors for women's participation while also imposing new expectations for femininity and marketability². Cahn explores how female athletes faced a “double bind.” They needed to be strong and competitive but also conventionally attractive. She traces this tension through figures like Billie Jean King, Cheryl Miller, and Serena Williams, showing that women’s sports evolved alongside, and sometimes against, media representations and gender norms.  Finally, the rise of athlete activism during this time, from Muhammad Ali to Colin Kaepernick, shows that sports continued to mirror and influence political discussions. While commercialization created new opportunities, it also increased public scrutiny and political backlash when athletes expressed their views. Together, these sources illustrate that sports in this period became more than just entertainment. They became a way for Americans to reflect on themselves, their values, and their conflicts.